四级作文与翻译平均分【一】
20 世纪70 年代以前，西方翻译理论界主要采取文艺学和语言学两种研究模式，前者视翻译为艺术，强调译作的文学价值，后者视翻译为科学，把翻译理论和语义、语法作用的分析紧密结合起来，从语言的使用技巧上论述翻译。两者都是要把原文和译文进行文本对照。70 年代以后，翻译的理论研究出现了多元化的趋势，越来越多的学者开始注重文化对翻译的影响。他们把翻译放到一个宏大的文化语境中去审视，认为翻译是译入语社会中一个独特的政治行为、文化行为、文学行为，而译本是译者在译入语社会的诸多因素作用下的结果。从文化角度对翻译进行研究有着明显的优势，研究者借用各种当代文化理论去考察、剖析翻译作为跨文化交际行为在译入语社会中的巨大影响和作用，从而展现出翻译研究的巨大空间和发展前景。其中最为著名的就是“翻译研究学派”。
1972 年，客居荷兰的美国学者Holmes 发表了重要论文《翻译研究的名与实》，首次提出了“翻译研究”的概念，他认为翻译研究应当被视为一门独立学科，Holmes 也成为翻译研究学派的奠基人。翻译研究在20 世纪80 和90年代得以迅猛发展。我们从维也纳大学教授、知名学者Snell-Hornby 的论述中能看出其发展轨迹。1987 年Snell-Hornby 指出翻译研究无疑是属于未来的学科，到了1995 年她在《翻译研究——综合法》修订版的前言中已经把翻译研究称为一门发展速度惊人的独立学科了。
很多学者为翻译研究后来的发展做出了贡献，Lefevere 就是翻译研究学派的一位杰出代表，他的改写理论对翻译的文化研究有着深远的影响。
四级作文与翻译平均分【二】
改写这一概念是Lefevere 提出的，他认为翻译、编史、选集、批评、编辑等等都是不同形式的改写，它们都从某种程度上对原文进行了改变和操控，其中翻译是最为明显、最有影响的改写，因为它在另一种文化中树立了作者或者作品的形象，让他们突破了原文化的界限。在《翻译、改写以及对文学名声的制控》的前言中，Bassnette 和Lefevere 指出翻译是对原文的改写，而所有的改写，不管出于什么目的，都体现了某种意识形态和诗学，也同样对文学进行操控让它在某个社会中起到特定的作用（viii）。在这本书中，Lefevere 多次提到改写同意识形态和诗学的关系，翻译作为最明显的改写形式也要受到意识形态和诗学的限制。
（一）意识形态
意识形态有广泛的意义，是一个关于社会文化的概念。当我们谈论意识形态的时候，可能会涉及到政治经济情况、民族的文化导向甚至某个社会的文学体系。意识形态在翻译中起着重要作用，决定了译者将要采取的基本策略。Lefevere 在他的另一本书《文学翻译：比较文学背景下的理论与实践》中，明确指出译者都想出版自己的作品，如果译作同目标文化中人们接受的行为标准，也就是这种文化中的'意识形态不冲突，那译者的目的就容易达到。翻译过程中最为有影响力的意识形态限制来自于政治，尤其是在那些政治敏感的社会或者时期，在这样的情况下，译者必须做出决定选择哪些类型的文本以及翻译的策略。
（二）诗学
诗学包括两部分，一方面指文学手段、文学样式、主题、原形人物、情节和象征等一系列文学要素，另一方面指的是观念，即在社会体系中，文学起什么作用，或应起什么作用。不同文化中的诗学会相互冲突，目的语文化中处于主导地位的诗学必然会影响到译者的翻译，所以为了达到某种诗学要求，译者必须做出让步，因为一种文化中人们广泛认可的诗学可能在另一种文化中并不受欢迎，这时候就需要译者采取有效的翻译策略，比如遵循目的语文化中的叙事方式或者改变原作的结构等等。
改写理论有着很强的适用性，它不同于以往文本对照的研究方法，而更关注翻译的“成品”，为研究文学翻译提供了新的视角。
参考文献：
[1]Lefevere, André. Translation, Rewriting, & theManipulation of Literary Fame. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2004.
[2] —. Translating Literature: Practice and Theory in aComparative Literature Context. New York: TheModern Language Association of America,1992.
四级作文与翻译平均分【三】
Nowadays, many famous university campuses have become one of the popular tourist attractions. It has been shown on TV and on the radio that every year thousands and thousands of middle school students visit Tsing Hua University and Peking University and other famous universities in China. In the place far away from the capital city, the local students also visit the universities famous in their own province.
So far as the present situation is concerned, is it a good or bad thing to open the university campus for tourists? Different people have different opinions. On one hand, some people argued that it is a good thing for the students to visit the famous university campus in that it can enable the middle students to get more information about the university and they can have enough time and opportunity to prepare themselves with the chance to get into the university. On the other hand, some people hold a negative view about this phenomenon. In their opinion, the public tourism will have negative effect on the universities because it will not only do harm to the environment but also to the intellectual atmosphere.
In my opinion, the tourism to the universities is not a good thing. The campus is mainly a place for study. With the increasing tourism on the campus, it will ruin the spiritual atmosphere in this learning field.
首先，提纯范文 “谋篇布局”及结构模板。
第一段：提出问题或现象。Nowadays, … … have become one of the popular … …. It has been shown on TV and on the radio that … ….
第二段：正反列举人们的看法。So far as the present situation is concerned, is it a good or bad thing to … …? Different people have different opinions. On one hand, some people argued that it is a good thing for … … in that … …. On the other hand, some people hold a negative view about this phenomenon. In their opinion, … … will have negative effect on … … because it will not only do harm to … … but also to … ….
第三段：摆明自己观点。In my opinion, … … is not a good thing. … … With the increasing … …, it will ruin … ….
其次，提纯范文“段落写作”。
段落写作分为统一性，连贯性和完整性三方面。
统一性(unity：段落开头的主题句应该做到不可太宽泛，也不可太具体，做到有较强的概括性才能使下文做到有的放矢的展开。范文第二段首句以设问的方式提出一个问题is it a good or bad thing就有很强的概况性。下文自然会一方面从好的方面说明，另一方面从坏的方面说明。
连贯性(coherence：关联词是使文章段落之间相互连贯的必要条件。范文中nowadays, on one hand, on the other hand, in one’s opinion即以“启承转合”递进的顺序是文章条理清晰，层层展开。
完整性(completeness：以设问句“So far as the present situation is concerned, is it a good or bad thing to open the university campus for tourists?”开头，这是平时较少运用的段落写作方式——设问法。“On one hand … …. On the other hand, … ….”是段落写作分类列举法的典型用法。
再次，提纯范文“句子写作”。
1. It has been shown that … …
类似句型：It is known to us that … …
It is said that … …
It is reported that … …
It is controversial that … …
2. “… … Tsing Hua University and Peking University and other famous universities … …。”——并列句。并列句是简单的复杂句。但其运用方法并不简单，注意练习并接句的使用，会使句子显的更加饱满。
3. enable v. 使…能够
I gave him full directions to enable him to find the house.
4. in that = because
表“因为”的连词还有since, for, as，如：
The boy was absent because he was ill. = The boy was absent since he was ill.
此句以我们常用的人称开头，句式简单，我们可以通过把since提前改变句式，如：
Since the boy was ill, he was absent. 句式多样化。
最后，提纯范文“措辞”。
1. attraction n. 具有吸引力的事情。
2. thousands and thousands 成千上万的
形容“多”的表达方法：millions and millions
a multitude of
a great deal of
a large amount of
plenty of
many a
3. “some people argued that … …”中的“argue”并不是“讨论，辩论”的意思，而是“认为”。
I argue that … …
I maintain that … …
I claim that … …
I insist that … … = I think that … …
I hold that … …
I assert that … …
I assume that … …
4. negative adj. 否定的.，相反的
hold negative view = hold opposite opinions
5. phenomenon n. 现象
social phenomenon 社会现象
natural phenomenon 自然现象
6. intellectual adj. 聪明的= intelligent, bright, clever
(选词策略：使用最近所学的单词，如intellectual > intelligent > bright > clever
在分析并掌握范文之后，我们需要运用范文知识练习仿写。笔者运用2005年12月范文中的模板结构仿写了2006年12月的四级作文，以供参考：
1. 许多人喜欢在除夕夜看春节晚会
2. 但有些人提出取消春节晚会
3. 我的看法
Nowadays, the Spring Festival Evening has become one of the popular topic and attractions during every traditional New Year’s Eve. It has been shown on TV and on the radio that every year thousands and thousands of Chinese people appear to be accustomed to enjoying the sights and sounds of a brilliant feast, while gathering with their beloved family.
However, an increasing number of people have voiced different opinions towards it. So far as the present situation is concerned, is it a good or bad thing to cancel the Spring Festival Evening? Different people have different opinions. On one hand, some people argued that it is a good thing to amuse the audience in that it is composed by a numerous adequate programs, such as the emotional song, the graceful dance, the funny short sketch, the amusing comic dialogue, the delightful magic, and the marvelous acrobatics and so on. On the other hand, some people hold a negative view about this phenomenon. In their opinion, the Spring Festival Evening will have negative effect on the family harmony because it will not only do harm to having the talks between family members on the Spring Festival Eve but also to enjoying the gourmet meal in a fancy restaurant.
In my opinion, the Spring Festival Evening is a good thing. It may not remain a must for all people, but it can bring us a strong sense of festivity and serve as an alternative among the variety of holiday activities. With the increasing audience of the Spring Festival Evening, it will ruin a distinctive culture during the Spring Festival vacation.
四级作文与翻译平均分【四】
Dear all,
I am writing this letter to express my gratitude to my parents for teaching me to be positive and to be strong. “Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.” is the opinion held by Aristotle. It is the experience of our forefathers, however, it is correct even today, including my parenting.
It is widely acknowledged that parenting, which can also be explained as family education, is of great significance in our character forming and manner acquiring. To be more detailed, setting good examples instead of just giving precepts is the greatest achievement of my parents. They not only taught me to think for the best and prepare for the worst; they taught me how. They not only told me the benefits of being strong in mind; they proved it. All those things require huge amount of time and work, but it’s worth it.
Without my parents’ contribution and education, I would never be who I am now. But most importantly, I would never be more gratitude to them than today.
Yours,
XXX
四级作文与翻译平均分【五】
Dear Mary,
You said in your letter that many of your classmates wore fashionableclothes, but you couldn't afford them so you felt very depressed. There are dif-ferent views on people's clothes. The followings are my ideas:
Firstly, you shouldn't put too much emphasis on physical appearance.
Remember that the most important task for you today is to concentrate on yourstudies. No matter what you wear, you will really look your best when youcome out first in your examinations.
Secondly, you should understand that it is a fine virtue to live in fru-gality. Just as a famous saying goes, Frugality is the mother of virtue.
Since your family can't provide you with enough money to buy fashionableclothes, it is all the more necessary for you to try to lighten the financialburden of your family. And you will find the virtue of frugality benefit youa lot in your future life.
I hope you understand what I mean. Hope you will take a positive attitudetowards life and will be happy again when you read my letter.
Yours,
Anne
四级作文与翻译平均分【六】
(1 模版1
Different people have different views on_____.Some people think that_____,whereas others aegue that __________.
As far as I am concerned, I agree with the opinion that ___________.For one thing,I firmly believe that ___________.For another,_____________.Just think of________,who/which_______.
Taking all these factors into consideration,we may safely come to the conclusion that______.Only if_______can we _______,just as the saying goes,________________.
(2模版2
In recent years there have been many reports of ________.It turns a new chapter of _________in China,and will have far-reaching effects in the forthcoming years.
The biggest benefit,in my eyes,is that_______.In addition,_______.Finally,______________.
Apart from the benefits mentioned above,we should also face several unavoidable challenges.In the first place,_____________.In the second place,________.What’s more,_______________.In summary,we should_______________.
(3模版3
Nowadays more and more ______are commonly and widely used in everyday life,ranging from __________to_____________.
The popularity of _______will have a great influence on ______.On the one hand,_________.On the other hand,__________.
To conclude,____________are just like a double-edged sword.With them we may________.However,one point should be kept in mind that we should make sensible use,always being a master instead of slaving of them.
四级作文与翻译平均分【七】
春天， 万物复苏，小河水哗哗地顺流而下； 活泼机灵的小鸟们在枝头喳喳地纵情歌唱； 小草们神不知鬼不觉地从地下探出了脑袋，大地换上了绿色的新衣； 小野花们争先恐后地展示着自己的美丽； 一棵棵大树好像正在返老还童， 抽出嫩黄色的新芽；。年迈的`凤凰木也紧跟着春天的步伐， 吐出米粒大小的嫩叶， 就像刚出生的婴儿那般娇嫩。
夏天，太阳像一个火炉似地炙烤着地面。凤凰木的叶子早已变成了深绿色，枝条也向四周扩展了许多，变成了一把绿色的大伞。当太阳透过茂密的树叶筛下一束束金光时， 美丽的凤凰花绽开了一张张笑脸，好像给凤凰木披上了红色的霞衣。
秋天，凤凰树的叶子慢慢地变成了金黄色，在微风吹拂下纷纷飘落下来， 给地面铺上了一层厚厚的金色地毯。课间十分钟，我和小伙伴们在凤凰树下尽情地玩耍、嬉闹，甭提有多高兴了。
冬天，刺骨的寒风从耳边呼呼地刮过，古老的凤凰木褪去了繁华，仿佛一个弯着腰、知识渊博的老学者，正在讲述着她一百多年来的沧桑岁月， 并勉励我们克服各种困难、勤奋学习，成为对国家有贡献的人才。
这就是我们百年老校的百年古树---凤凰木。
